Tattoo, Piercing And Breast Implantation Infections
16th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases
Nice, France - In the USA, Canada, Australia and Northern Europe, between 8 and 13% of the population has tattoos and/or piercings, Jean-Baptiste Guiard-Schmid of the Paris Rothschild Hospital reported during the 16th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Disease (ECCMID). The congress, which is organized by the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Disease (ESCMID), is currently underway in Nice and ends today.
In the USA alone, according to figures gathered in 2000, some 7 to 20 million Americans have tattoos, Guiard-Schmid said. Those with tattoos and piercings spanned various age and socio-economic groups. While piercings are more commonly found among teenagers; tattoos appear to be more popular with adults between the ages of 18 and 30. Other more extreme body modifications (scarification, foreign body implants, branding) are performed by a limited number of practitioners.
The main health complications associated with piercing and tattooing include infections, pathologic healing, allergic reactions, tissue damages, bleeding and odonto-stomatologic lesions.
Local bacterial infections are rare after tattooing but develop frequently from piercings, although they are usually minor. Between 10 to 20% of piercings are associated with local benign bacterial infection, according to the results of the few available studies on the topic. Typical symptoms of a local bacterial infection are redness, swelling, fever and pain. The main pathogens causing local infections, e.g. suppuration or abscesses, are Staphylococcus aureus, group A streptococcus and Pseudomonas spp. Impetigo has also been identified and is caused by Streptococcus pyogenes.
These infections may become chronic and lead to local pyogenic granuloma (also called botryomycoma). Bacterial infections occurring as a result of piercing rarely spread and rarely lead to severe or life-threatening infections. Erysipelas and cellulitis have been observed with S. aureus and S. pyogenes aetiology. Anecdotal case reports of leprosy, tuberculosis, syphilis, chancroid and tetanus have also been published in recent years.
The use of unsterilized needles, needle bars and tubes, forceps, jewelery, scalpels, dermographs and contaminated pigments can result in blood-borne infections, such as hepatitis B, C and HIV infection. HBV and HCV transmission have been well documented in cases reported about Dutch piercing shops in 1997 and in London tattooist shops during the late seventies. Similarly acute hepatitis C apparently originated from tattooing in an Australian prison population in 2001.
These viral infections may be asymptomatic in their early phases and therefore rarely diagnosed. Thus, their relationship to body modifications is not always realized. Piercing and tattooing are identified as risk factors for viral hepatitis in more than 20 epidemiological studies currently available. But debate continues among some authors who think that it is difficult to distinguish body modifications from other risk factors (use of intravenous drugs, incarceration, etc.) in the studied populations. Even if hepatitis B and C virus transmission rates are very low, the number of body modifications performed each year probably accounts for a significant number of hepatitis cases. Fortunately, the HBV vaccination should prevent at least half of these cases. HIV transmission has been documented by a case reported in 1997. The patient had been contaminated in a period of 3 months during which he underwent six piercings in different parts of his body, performed in different piercing shops in Europe and the USA. There were no biomolecular data on HIV strains in this report. The theoretical risk is probably very low since HIV is a fragile virus. However, piercing of genitals may be a risk factor for HIV infection, according to some authors. Piercers and tattooists generally work without medical supervision, and techniques are often passed on from one piercer or tattooist to another directly. Even though they have become very common, body modifications still exist within a context of "epidemiological silence". However, they have a significant impact on public health and concern all health care professionals, ranging from general practitioners to emergency units. Regulations on body modifications are heterogeneous, especially in Europe.
People seeking cosmetic breast surgery must be aware of the risk of infection. In fact, 2.5% of prostheses result in infection. This should be taken into consideration by those facing a mastectomy and wanting to reconstruct their breasts, Didier Pittet of the University of Geneva reported at the ECCMID.
Breast implants have to be divided into two categories: augmentation and reconstruction. In all the cases some adverse effects could occur: infections, wound dehiscence, capsular contracture, implant rupture, etc. But infection rates are 10-fold higher in breast reconstruction than in aesthetic implants.
Major predisposing and risk factors include pre-existing scarring, radiation therapy, simultaneous mastectomy or lymph node dissection. The origin of infection can be a contaminated implant, contaminated saline within the implant, contamination of the saline implant (some implants need to be filled by the surgeon during the intervention), contaminated surgical environment, seeding of the implant by remote infection.
Usually infections occur during the first month after implantation (on average between 10-12 days) and cause fever, rapidly evolving pain, marked breast erythema. The only way to deal with such effects is the surgical removal of the implants.
http://www.escmid.org
Chemicals in tattoo inks need closer scrutiny
As tattoos have grown in popularity, so have complaints of adverse side effects associated with both their application and removal. A new study, done by chemistry students at Northern Arizona University, looked at the chemical composition of a variety of tattoo inks to better understand their potential health risks.
The findings, presented today at the 229th national meeting of the American Chemical Society, the world's largest scientific society, suggest that closer regulation of the tattoo industry may be warranted, according to the researchers.
Although inks used in tattoos are subject to regulation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as cosmetics and color additives, the agency has not traditionally regulated them, letting the task fall to local jurisdictions, according to a fact sheet issued by the FDA Office of Cosmetics and Colors cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/cos-204.html. This effectively gives a tattoo artist license to inject whatever he or she deems appropriate under the skin, according to the researchers.
"Tattoos are no longer limited to the rough and rowdy," says Haley Finley-Jones, an undergraduate chemistry student and lead author of the study. "With the growing popularity of tattoos among young people, it is vital that we develop a better understanding of this form of self expression."
The new research - a joint effort between Finley-Jones and Leslie Wagner as part of an undergraduate research project directed by Jani Ingram, a professor of chemistry at NAU - has two main goals: to characterize the diversity of tattoo inks, and to determine if any inks pose health threats in the form of heavy metals or other potentially dangerous chemicals.
Overall, the study covers 17 inks from five different manufacturers. "We chose to study five different brands of black ink as it is the most common color used in tattoos," Finley-Jones says. The researchers also are testing three different brands of red, blue, yellow and white ink. Tattoo artists frequently mix inks to achieve the desired color, so the researchers selected their samples based on the most likely base colors.
Because there have been no previous studies, they are using analytical techniques that can test for a wide variety of chemical components, rather than looking for a specific group of compounds.
"At this point in the study, we have determined that the inks do in fact vary in composition from manufacturer to manufacturer and from color to color," Wagner says. The researchers also have found some indication of the presence of metals, and are in the process of running more tests to verify the identity of the metals.
A number of potential health problems might be stemming from the lack of oversight, according to the researchers. There have been a variety of claims that tattoo inks cause adverse effects in people, including allergic reactions to ink components, a burning sensation during the course of MRIs, and the migration of inks to different tissues in the body, such as the lungs.
It is unclear, however, what the specific causes of these reactions might be, and the only way to gain better understanding is to know what chemicals make up the inks, the researchers say. Finley-Jones and Wagner expect that the variation found in their testing and the potential presence of toxic metals will encourage regulators to begin monitoring the tattoo ink industry more closely.
There are other problems with unknown compositions of tattoo inks. For example, surgery to remove tattoos is becoming more widespread, and not knowing the composition makes the procedure more difficult. "Once the components of a tattoo ink have been identified, doctors removing the inks can use their knowledge of the chemical characteristics of the components to select a treatment that will be most effective and, hopefully, the least painful for the patient," Wagner says.
The American Chemical Society is a nonprofit organization, chartered by the U.S. Congress, with a multidisciplinary membership of more than 159,000 chemists and chemical engineers. It publishes numerous scientific journals and databases, convenes major research conferences and provides educational, science policy and career programs in chemistry. Its main offices are in Washington, D.C., and Columbus, Ohio.
- Jason Gorss
Haley Finley-Jones and Leslie D. Wagner are undergraduate chemistry students at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff, Ariz.
Jani C. Ingram, Ph.D., is a professor of chemistry in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff, Ariz.
ANYL 248 In the flesh: Chemical characterization of tattoo inks
Haley Finley-Jones1, Leslie D. Wagner2, and Jani C. Ingram2. (1) Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Arizona University, P. O. Box 5698, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, Fax: 928-523-8111, hjf2@dana.ucc.nau.edu, (2) Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Arizona University
The intentions of this study are to determine the composition of tattoo inks as currently they are not regulated. While the components of topically applied make-up must be approved by the FDA, a tattoo artist has the license to use whatever he deems appropriate for injection into the skin. The hypothesis this study seeks to prove is that there is a great variety in chemical compositions for tattoo inks on the market. It is expected that the variation of results will be useful in support of regulating the tattoo ink industry. To determine the actual variation of inks on the market, we will test several inks in a variety of colors. In this study we will employ a stepwise analytical approach to determine the chemical components of the ink samples. The results from metals analysis by ICP-MS and functional group screening by SIMS will be discussed.
Briefly explain in lay language what you have done, why it is significant and what are its implications (particularly to the general public)
Tattoos are no longer limited to the rough and rowdy. With the danger of dirty needles deteriorating, new potential risks are coming to the surface. The intent of this study is to determine the chemical composition of tattoo inks. It is widely unknown that tattoo ink manufacturing is not regulated by the FDA. Because of this, there are a number of potential health problems that might arise. There are other problems with unknown composition as well. For example, tattoo removal is becoming more prevalent and not knowing the composition makes it all the more difficult. In our research we have obtained a selection of inks varying in color and manufacturer. We are analyzing these inks using a variety of different techniques and methods. For health purposes, we are analyzing for heavy metals and other potentially dangerous chemicals. We are also trying to determine just how varied the components are. With the growing popularity of tattoos among young people, it is vital that we develop a better understanding of this form of self expression.
How new is this work and how does it differ from that of others who may be doing similar research?
This is the first scientific study done on the composition of tattoo inks. In literature searches, we were unable to find any similar research that had been published in a peer-edited journal.
Haley Finley-Jones
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Northern Arizona University
P. O. Box 5698
Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Phone Number: 928-523-7877
Fax Number: 928-523-8111
Publishable Email: hjf2@dana.ucc.nau.edu
Contact: Michael Bernstein
619-525-6402, in San Diego
March 12-16, 2005
202-872-4445 (Washington, D.C.)
American Chemical Society
http://www.acs.org
Getting Tattooed Could Have Hidden Health Consequences
Everyone knows that non-sterile tattoo needles can lead to AIDS and Hepatitis. However, according to research by Ronald Petruso, lecturer of chemistry at Delaware Valley College in Doylestown, PA, there are other, overlooked, risks.
For the past year and a half, Petruso has been collaborating with Jani Ingram of Northern Arizona University in studying the toxicology of tattoo pigments. As television shows such as Miami Ink and Inked gain in popularity, Petruso and Ingram wanted to delve into a topic that doesn't get that much press in an industry that that the government doesn't control.
"It's not federally regulated and you don't need a license in order to practice. But it should be because since these pigments are going under the skin, they're being used as drugs," Petruso explains. "The number of people with tattoos is growing and still we don't see much aired in newspapers, broadcast news, or the rest of the media about possible dangers outside of AIDS and Hepatitis. We just wanted to look into the situation and see where the research takes us and see if we can make people more vigilant about the risks."
At Northern Arizona, Ingram has found traces of lead in tattoo pigments. Meanwhile, at Delaware Valley, Petruso with the help of two students, Peter Olivieri and Michael Manyoun, have found carcinogenic substances in a common tattoo pigment. The shocking detail about this finding was that the carcinogenic pigment was manufactured at Sun Chemical in Cincinnati, with no intended use for tattoos.
"When we told Sun Chemical about our findings they were very concerned about this because this is not what they design their products for. The pigments they make are used by auto manufactures for making paint," he explains. "The real implication of this finding is that some tattoo pigments are being exchanged under the table. Sun Chemical said that if they found out the source of who's misusing their products, they would go after them and sue them."
Petruso explains that the real danger is that since tattoos are not federally regulated, no one even considers that these pigments might be dangerous.
"There are so many tattoo parlors out there that you don't have any idea where they're buying their supplies. People come in knowing about Hepatitis and AIDS but these days tattoo artists are careful about ensuring that the needles are sterile. But they don't expect to see other problems. They have no idea of the chemicals present in those pigments, and that's the situation that needs to be addressed, "Petruso explains.
Petruso and Ingram presented their findings titled "A Quantitative Analysis of Tattoo Inks" at the American Chemical Society meeting in Atlanta, Georgia last March.
PO Box 214
State College, PA 16804
United States
http://www.dickjonescomm.com/
Health Risks of Tattooing and Ear or Body Piercing
Tattooing and ear/body piercing are increasingly popular among Canadians. These procedures, however, may increase the risk of contracting a number of serious blood-borne diseases.
Background
Tattoos and ear/body piercings are very popular, especially among those aged 18 to 22. Between 73 and 83 percent of women in the U.S. have had their ears pierced. An American university survey in 2001 found that 51 percent of students had piercings and 23 percent had tattoos. U.S. studies show that the number of women with tattoos quadrupled between 1960 and 1980. The number of tattooing and piercing shops in Canada has increased dramatically in the last few years.
Health Risks of Tattooing and Ear/Body Piercing
Skin and mucous membranes in the mouth and nose protect you from many infections. Both tattooing and ear/body piercing procedures involve piercing the skin or mucous membrane with a needle or other sharp instrument.
Unless the needles are new, sterilized for each treatment and properly handled by the practitioner, instruments can be contaminated with the infected blood or bodily fluids of another person.
You may also have bacteria or viruses present on your skin that can enter your body and cause infection when your skin is pierced. Practitioners who do the tattooing and piercing are also at risk of becoming infected through accidental cuts and punctures.
It is possible to transmit viral infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and herpes through tattooing and piercing, as well as bacterial skin infections such as Streptococcus and Staphylococcus.
Minimizing your Risk
The best protection against disease and infection is to carefully choose where you obtain your tattoo or piercing. Here is a list of conditions on which to base your decision:
-- The work area is clean and brightly lit.
-- The shop uses instruments that are easily cleaned and sterilized, such as stainless steel.
-- Tattooing is done with sterile needles in a tattoo machine that has been wiped with alcohol after each use and covered with new disposable plastic.
-- Ear piercing is done with a sterile needle or a gun that has a disposable sterile cartridge to holds the studs.
-- Tattoo and piercing needles are new and sterile for each treatment. They should never be reused.
-- Those performing the procedure have clean working habits, including washing their hands before and after procedures, after handling contaminated items, before opening and handling sterile supplies, and before putting on and after removing their gloves.
-- Practitioners wear medical gloves during the procedures.
-- The shop has a "clean zone" and a "dirty zone." The procedure should be done in the clean zone where only sterilized packages and clean equipment are kept and used. The dirty zone is the contaminated area where there is a washing sink and holding basin for disinfecting implements.
-- Work surfaces are made of smooth and non-porous materials.
-- All surfaces are cleaned with a solution of bleach and water.
-- The shop has a sterilizing machine, preferably a steam sterilizer, and test strips are used to indicate whether the machine is operating correctly.
-- Waste is disposed of properly, with blood-contaminated waste placed in plastic bags and tied before being added to the regular waste.
-- Sharp implements used to pierce the skin are put into puncture-resistant containers.
-- Oral and written instructions are given to clients for personal care after the procedure.
You can minimize your own risk of infection by taking these precautions:
-- Choose a good professional practitioner who has been trained.
-- Ask the practitioner if she or he follows the Infection Control Guidelines for tattooing and ear/body piercing.
-- Never tattoo or pierce skin that has a cut or break, pimples, warts, or other abnormalities.
-- Make sure the practitioner disinfects the skin area using a skin antiseptic before the procedure.
-- Wash your hands thoroughly before you apply lotions or ointments to the tattooed or pierced area after the procedure or when rotating the jewelry, as directed by the practitioner. If you are concerned that the tattoo or piercing is infected, contact your doctor or local health unit.
-- Hepatitis B vaccine will help protect you from hepatitis B, but there is no vaccine for hepatitis C or HIV.
Health Canada's Role
Working in partnership with the provincial and territorial governments, Health Canada has created Infection Control Guidelines for tattooing and ear/body piercing. These guidelines were developed for practitioners of tattooing and ear/body piercing by representatives from industry, health services, and Health Canada's Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control.
HEALTH CANADA
Tips on getting a tattoo removed
If you can't afford the expensive laser procedure - usually $400 per session that medical insurance often won't cover - there are cheaper ways to get a tattoo removed professionally. The type of procedure also depends on the size of the tattoo, its location on the body and the patient's ability to heal.
Excision removes the skin affected by the tattoo with a knife and closes it with sutures.
Dermabrasion freezes the skin and then uses a rotary sander to peel off the skin.
Salabrasion uses anesthesia to numb the skin. A solution of salt water is applied and then the process becomes similar to dermabrasion.
Laser treatment breaks up the pigment, allowing the body to carry the ink away to the lymph nodes.
Source: www.patient-info.com/tattoo.htm
Dr. Sky Connolly of Albuquerque Dermatology Associates (USA) offers tips on getting tattoos removed by laser:
If your tattoo was done by a nonprofessional, the ink is likely to take longer to remove because the elements in the ink are mostly metallic.
If the tattoo is on your chest, back or below the knee, be prepared for a difficult healing process. The face and the arms heal best.
Are you black or a dark-skinned Hispanic or American Indian? The laser might destroy the layer of melanin above the tattoo layer, leaving a patch of light skin.
After each session, apply ointment to the area and place a bandage over it. Clean lightly with soap and water for the next week.
Don't schedule the next session for a few months. The body needs time to remove as much ink as possible.
Tattoo chemicals warning
Fans of tattooing are putting poisonous chemicals into their skin because of widespread ignorance about the substances used in tattooing dyes, the European Commission is warning.
'Would you inject car paint into your skin?,' the Commission asked in a statement accompanying its report on the health risks of tattooing and body-piercing.
With the fashion for body adornment growing, the Commission said too little was known about the chemical structure and toxicity of tattoos.
It said most chemicals used in tattoos were industrial pigments originally used for other purposes, such as automobile paints or writing inks, and there was little or no safety data to support their use in tattoos.
In addition, laws demanding that tattoo artists use gloves and sterile needles did not include rules about the purity of dyes or toxicological 'risk evaluation', meaning they could be impure and dirty without breaking the law.
The report said that as well as the risk of catching diseases such as HIV, hepatitis, or bacterial infections from dirty needles, tattooing could cause skin cancer, psoriasis, toxic shock syndrome or even behavioral changes.
It said two deaths caused by tattooing or body-piercing had been reported in Europe since the end of 2002. It is estimated that up to half of piercings require medical treatment, usually from acute infections.
The research published Thursday was the first part of a drive to make the practices safer, a spokesman said.
Having identified the potential health risks, the Commission plans to find out more about the tattooing and body-piercing industries before recommending stronger safety laws.
'If people want to tattoo or pierce their bodies, we would like them to do so with proper health and safety guarantees,' said Philippe Busquin, European Research Commissioner.
Beach Boy Calls On Public To Face Up To Hepatitis C
Former member of the Beach Boys, David Marks, is today calling on the public to 'face their past' as part of a government campaign to raise awareness of hepatitis C. The Beach Boy, who found out that he had the virus in 1999, is in London's Leicester Square to unveil an outdoor exhibition of giant portraits of people with hepatitis C.
Recent research shows that four out of five people in England know little or nothing about hepatitis C, and eighty per cent of the estimated 200,000 people infected in this country are unaware of their condition, which can go undetected for up to 30 years.
The three-metre high portraits on display in Leicester Square are of people from across the country, all of who have lived with hepatitis C. The pictures were taken by photographer Michele Martinoli, who has herself been successfully treated for hepatitis C.
Welcoming the event, Chief Medical Officer Sir Liam Donaldson said: "This event is an innovative way of raising public awareness of hepatitis C and will help with efforts to prevent new cases and to diagnose and treat those who are already infected.
"By touring major cities in England, the photographic exhibition will help communicate key messages about the disease to the public across the country."
Former Beach Boy, David Marks, speaking at the event said:
"People need to take a few minutes out of their day to step back and face their pasts... have I ever injected drugs using shared equipment, even just once? Have I had an unsafe tattoo or piercing? If the answer is yes, call the Hepatitis C Information Line for advice about hepatitis C and whether you should consider being tested."
Photographer, Michele Martinoli, speaking at the event said:
"There is a social stigma around the disease caused by lack of awareness. I hope these portraits show that hepatitis C affects people from all walks of life. It's important that we bring hepatitis C out of the shadows to get people to face up to the illness in the same way we did with HIV in the eighties and nineties."
Hepatitis C is usually spread by the transfer of blood from person-to-person, for example through the sharing of needles or syringes when injecting drugs. Those at risk include people who have had a blood transfusion before screening for hepatitis C was introduced in 1991. It can also be spread, less commonly, through unprotected sex, tattoos and body piercing. Many people have no symptoms, while others may feel tired and have mild abdominal discomfort. There is effective treatment available, which is why it is so important for people who may have been at risk to get tested.
The Hepatitis C Information Line is 0800 451 451 (textphone 0800 0850859) and open from 10am-10pm, 7 days a week, and further information on hepatitis C is available at http://www.hepc.nhs.uk.
For further information or pictures of the event, or to arrange interviews with the Beach Boy, the photographer, a hepatitis C expert or any of the people featured in the exhibition, please contact Chris Duncan, Joanna York or Victoria Smith on 0207 815 3900 or chris.duncan@munroforster.com
Chris Duncan - 07810 386314
Joanna York - 07958 615283
Victoria Smith - 07816 527035
For more information on Department of Health policy on hepatitis C please contact Sophie Coppel in the media centre on 020 7210 5707.
Notes to Editors:
- Hepatitis C is recognised as a significant public health problem world-wide. In England it is estimated that there are approximately 200,000 people chronically infected and the majority of these are unaware of their infection. There is currently no vaccine against hepatitis C, so prevention of new infections is particularly important. There are increasingly effective antiviral drug treatments available that have been approved by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE). Lifestyle changes, in particular decreasing alcohol intake, can delay the onset of liver disease
- The Hepatitis C Action Plan for England is available on the DH website at: http://www.dh.gov.uk/publications and http://www.dh.gov.uk/cmo
- David Marks played on the first four Beach Boys' albums. He was forced to leave the band in 1999 due to his battles with hepatitis C. He has since cleared the virus through treatment, whilst dedicating his time to raising awareness of hepatitis C across America
- The portraits are of people who are currently living with hepatitis C, produced by photographer Michele Martinoli, who herself has been successfully treated for the virus. This event is the first time these pictures are being exhibited. Martinoli's work has previously been shown in titles such as The Face, Attitude, AXM, QX, G3, The Times, Sunday Mirror and Time Out
GNNREF: 112591
Issued by : DOH Press Office (UK)
VA Raises Hepatitis C Awareness
Did you know that symptoms of hepatitis C could take 20 to 30 years to appear? Hepatitis C is a disease that affects the liver and is spread through contact with infected blood or contaminated needles, tattoo tools, and other means. An estimated four million people in the U.S. are diagnosed with hepatitis C. In some cases, veterans seem to have higher rates of infection than others.
While symptoms are often very mild or non-existent, hepatitis C can be a very serious illness and, over time, cause permanent liver problems including cirrhosis and liver cancer.
The liver is one of the largest and most important organs in your body. During National Hepatitis Awareness Month, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) encourages those with one or more risk factors to consider getting tested. Talk with your doctor about being tested for hepatitis C if you:
-- have ever used a needle to inject drugs, even if it was many years ago;
-- had a blood transfusion or organ transplant before 1992;
-- have been on long-term kidney dialysis;
-- are a Vietnam veteran;
-- have had exposure to blood on your skin;
-- have had multiple sex partners;
-- have tattoos or body piercings;
-- have liver disease;
-- have a history of drinking a lot of alcohol; or
-- have had an abnormal liver function test
-- wish to be tested
The test for hepatitis C is simple and only requires a blood sample.
VA is the largest single provider of medical care to people with hepatitis C infection in the U.S., and is the nation's leader in hepatitis C screening, testing and treatment. VA has a system-wide policy for screening all enrolled veterans for hepatitis C risk factors and has identified approximately 250,000 veterans in the past 10 years who have a diagnosis of or positive blood test for hepatitis C.
In fiscal year 2003, VA spent more than $2.4 million on 16 research projects relating to hepatitis C. In addition, VA investigators received $4.1 million from non-VA sources for another 104 studies.
VA funds four Hepatitis C Resource Centers to foster innovation and disseminate best practices in prevention, care and education. They are located in Minneapolis, Minn.; San Francisco, Calif.; West Haven, Conn.; and Seattle, Wash., in collaboration with Portland, Ore.
VA research on hepatitis C includes clinical trials of treatments, epidemiological studies, investigations into the biological mechanisms of infection, and studies on improving quality of life for hepatitis C patients. Ongoing research is being conducted at VA medical centers in Bronx and New York, N.Y.; Long Beach and San Francisco, Calif.; Portland, Ore.; Seattle, Wash.; and Richmond, Va.
For more in-depth information about hepatitis, visit http://www.hepatitis.va.gov.
Veterans Affairs (VA) R&D
103 S. Gay St., Ste 517
Baltimore, MD 21202
United States
http://www.va.gov/resdev
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